Group II Paper III KEY

Group II Paper II KEY

Group II Paper I KEY

Geographical knowledge of the vedic period.

The geographical evidence as to be found in the hymns of Vedas thros some light on the course of Indo-Aryan migration and the origin of Hinduism. Whether the Indo-Aryans came from Central Asia or not depends largely on the interpretation of the geographical allusions in the Rig and Yajur Vedas. The hymns in praise of rivers in the 10th blcok are interesting. The author while singing the greatness of the Sindhu enumerates at least 19 rivers including the Ganges. The fifth Stanza gives a list of 10 streams, small and great-Ganges, Yamuna, Saraswati, Satluj, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum, Maruwardwan (in J&K), Sushoma (Rowalpindi District) and probably Kanshi in the same district. This system of rivers did not remain the Saraswati. The existing delta of the Indus has been formed since the time of Alexander the Great.
The Vedic hymns reveal the initial Aryan settlements in India : western tributaries of the Indus, the Gomti (modern Gomal) the Krumu (modern Kurram) and the Kubha (modern Kabul). The one river mentioned in the North of Kabul is Suvastu (modern swat).
But the main focus of the Rig Vedic settlements was in the Punjab and the Delhi region. When the Rig-Vedic hymns were compiled the focus of Aryan settlement was the region between the Yamuna and the Sutlaj, south of modern Ambala and laong the upper course of river Saraswati. The most frequently mentioned rivers are the Sindhu (Indus), the Sarasvati (modern Sarsuti), the Drishadvati (modern Chitang), and the five streams of the Punjab.
Regarding the other geographical features, the Vedic poets knew the Himalayas but not the land south of Yamuna, since they did not mention the Vindhayas, In the east also the Aryans did not expand beyond Yamuna; for the river Ganga is mentioned only once in one late hymn.
And possibly, the Aryans had no knowledge of the oceans since the word 'samudra' in the Vedic period meant a pool of water. But the later Vedic knowledge shows that the Aryans knew the two seas, the Himalayas and the Vindhyan mountainas and generally the entire Indo-Gangetic plain.
The Aryans used various kinds of pottery and the sites where the painted grey were are found, confirm the Aryan settlements. The Vedic texts show that the Aryans expanded from the Punjab over the whole of western Uttar Pradesh covered by the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. The Bharatas and Purus known as Kuru people first lived between Sarasvati and Drishadvati just on the fringe of the Doab. Soon the Kurus occupied Delhi and the Upper portion of the doab, that is the area called Kurukshetra, After this event, the Kurus joined with the people called Panchalas who occupied the middle portion of the Doab or the moder districts of bareilly Dadaun and Farrukabad. It was the Kuru-Panchalas who had set up their capital at Hastinapur situated in the district of Meerut. Later the Kauravas and the Pandavas belonging to the same Kuru clan fougth out a battle which led to the extinction of the Kuru clan.
And by 600 B.C. the Aryans spread from the Doab further east to Kosala in Eastern U.P. and Vedeha in north Bihar. The former town is associated with the story of Ramchandra, but it is not mentioned in Vedic literature.




Indus And Vedic Civilisation
There is muc to be contrasted between the cultures of the Harappans and the Aryans. There are indeed a few points of similarities, but they are not of any significance. Why the points of contrast are more is primarily because of geographic location, economic activity and the religious practices followed by both the cultures. Far more important is the fact that the Aryans, with a plasticity of mind, made life vibrant; whereas, the Indus life looks more like stylized puppet show.
The plasticity of the Aryan mind was shown in the language as well as the way in which they adapted agricultural and settled life. The seals of the Indus Valley show that the pictographs remained statis, whereas, the Aryan language in the Rig Veda at places rises to musical levels. The success with which the Aryan writings were composed reveals the ability of the Aryan mind to grasp the mulitiple dimensions of human life. And language which exhibits immense potentialities in its vocabulary reveals that the community is full of potentialities. On the other hand, out of nearly 400 characters known to the Harappans only a few were repeated time and again.
The other manifestation of Aryan civilization, that is, its capacity to change and adapt itself, has given a continuity to Indian Civilization despite the absence of mighty empires. On the other hand, the Indus Valley people reached a blind alley and the never learnt anything from other civilizations like the Sumerian. Adaptability or ability to respond to challenges is the hallmark of any youthful civilization. The Indus civilization reached its senilithy by 2000 B.C. whereas the Aryan Civilization was full with creative dynamism.
Archaeology is the only source of our knowledge of the Harappan civilization, but information concerning the Vedic Aryans depends almost entirely on literary texts, which were handed down by the oral tradition. It is clear from the material remains that the Harappan civilization was in certain respects superior to that of the Aryans. In Particular it was a city civilization of a highly developed type, while by contrast city life was unfamiliar to the Aryans. The superiority of the Aryans lay in the military field. In which their use of the light horse chariot played a prominent part, or in literary exuberation.
Harappans were peace loving city-dwellers and good planners as is evident by grid pattern towns, elaborate drainage system, street lights, kelp-burnt brick houses, fortifications, granaries, baths and wells. The early Aryans were not city builders. Their way of life, nomad-pastoralists as theywere, was dominated by war like stock-breeding (they practiced a little agriculture) and migrations. City buildings etc. as a large-scale socio-economic activities is only much later mentioned in the later Vedic texts, epics and the Puranas.
The Harrapa culture is located in the Indus Valley and western India and its urbanization is based on a chalcolithic system with and absence of iron. Later Vedic society centering on the Ganges Valley from which the Harappan culture is largely absent owes its gradual urbanization to iron technology, the widespread domestication of the horse and the extension and intensification of plough agriculture. (Iron, horse and plough being nearly absent - some evidence in later Harappan sites).
The expansion and budding off of the Harappan system in the east as far as Alamgirpur (U.P.) and to the neighbouring areas was neither 'colonisation' nor was it 'political expansion' of any from, it was rather the expansion in terms of the permeations of the socio-economic and socio-cultural systems of Harappan society whereas, the Aryan advance towards eastern region - the Doab of the Ganges and Jamuna - was no doubt facilitated by their horse chariots and effective weapons and can be viewed as 'colonisation' or 'political expansion' though not all the Aryan culture contacts and expansion need have been of a violent kind.
The focal centers of the Harappan culture remained for a long time the twin cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro and it is from these centers that Harappan culture budded off, whereas the focus of attention of the Rig Veda was the Punjab and in the later Vedic period it shifted to the Doab of the Ganges and Jamuna rivers. The Punjab seems gradually to fade into the background and was regarded even with disapproval.
The Harappan society had a very complex social stratification, division of labour and multiplicity of crafts and industries, urbanism was its marked feature with Harappans enjoying a settled and sedentary life, and in this society the priest and the merchant played dominant roles perhaps constituting a 'ruling' elite. On the other hand, in the early period the Aryans were organized into a social organization which may be described as 'tribal' or rural' one with a minimal of division of labour and sedentariness. It was sed fully with more pronounced and increased division of labour when specialized trades and crafts appeared. But in this society it was not the priests and the merchants (Vaishyas) but the Priests and the Kshtriya who constituted the rule in elite (though with a tendency to rivalry).
In the Harappan society the Priestly class was of great importance as the central authority. Though there is little evidence in the Rig Veda of any special importance of the priests, however in later Vedic society, the priests as a class assumed a form of institutional authority. The institutions of slavery and prostitution were common to both the societies.
The entire Harappan civilization was the product of an available food surplus (wheat and barley), a fairly high level of craft industry, a script and most important of active commercial intercourse by which it was able to obtain its different and varied material from places far and near both in India (the sub-continent outside the Harappan sphere was not terra-incognita) and outside (i.e. Sumerian towns, Baluchistan and Central Asia). Both northern and southern India was connected in Harappan period by ties of brisk trade. But the early Aryans did not fully emerged out from the food-gathering and nomadic pastoral stage. They hated the panis, i.e. those who indulged in trade. Though by the end of the Vedic age trade contracts and commercial inter-course did not reach the Harappan level. It was only by the end of the Vedic period that the Aryans had some familiarity with the sub-continent.
The religion of the Harappan differed widely from that of the Vedic people. The Harappan practiced the cults of Sakti (mother Goddess) and Pasupati (Proto-Shiva) of animal-tree and stone worship and of Phallus and Yoni, i.e. fertility cult. The early Aryans condemned many of these cults. Harappans worshiped Mother Goddess but the Female deities played a minor part in Vedic religion though the Aryans provided spouses to their gods by later Vedic times. But the fear of the Phallus worship was replaced in the Yajur veda by its recognition as an official ritual. Siva also gained increased importance in the later Vedas. The Aryans anthropomorphized most of the forces of nature and prayed to them as Indra, Varuna, Agni, Mitra, Rudra, Soma, Surya, and Asvins. The fire of sacrificial cult was common to both. Vedic Aryans worshipped the cow while the Harappans reserved their veneration for bulls. The Harappans were iconic and the Aryans aniconic. Ascetic practices were known to both.
That the Harappan had a ruling authority or elite and / or an administrative organization cannot be doubted. Almost uniform planning of the cities and presence of sanitary system, standard weights and measures, assembly halls, huge granaries and citadels point to the existence of an authority, but what it was like as the later Vedic period the Aryan tribes had consolidated in little kingdoms with capitals and a sedimentary administrative system with important functionaries the Purohit and the twelve ratrins playing dominant role in support of the monarchy, the prevalent form of government.
The food habits of the Harappans were almost identical with those of the later Aryans if not early Aryans. The Harappans unlike the Aryans, preferred indoor games of outdoor amusements (chariot racing and hunting) though dice was popular past time with both. Playing music, singing and dancing were common to both. But about the musical instrument of the Harappan little is known or not known while the Aryans had the drum, lute and flute with cymbals and the harp as later additions. The Harappans buried their dead - the Aryans largely created their dead. The Harappans used a script, which remains undeciphered to date in spite of many claims for its deco din, where as references to writing in Vedic society came at a much later stage.
In art the Harappans made considerable progress. Their works of art add tour comprehension of their culture. In fact, the earliest artistic traditions belong to them. In sculpture (beareded man from Mohenjo-daro and two sand stone statuettes from Harappa), though a very few sculptures survive, in metal (bronze dancing girl) and ivory works, in terracotta's (small images and figures of animals, birds or human or animal and inscription a 9 Harappan script on them), and in their pottery (painted red and black, at times glazed), the Harappan show vigor, variety and ingenuity. On the other hand, Rig Vedic age is devoid of any tangible proof of Aryan achievements in these directions. In fact the Rig Veda says nothing of writing, art and architecture. The art of ceramics made Harappan, the Vedic pottery was a simple one.
The Harappans lacked that plasticity and dynamism of mind which is very essential for further growth and survival and they refused to learn from others, on the other hand, the Aryans possessing what the Harappans lacked, were youthful enough to be receptive, adaptive and assimilative, transforming themselves into a comprehensive civilization which in due course of time became essentially composite in character.
In the end we have to say that apart from the minor causative factors causing difference like the close mindedness of the Harappans and contrasted to the Plasticity of the Aryan mind, formalized and ritualized religion of the Harappans as contrasted to the animals and the metaphysical traits of the Aryans and the geographical locale were entirely different. The differences in socio-economic matrices between the two civilizations primarily account for the contrast between the two.


FOREIGN RELATIONS OF ASOKA
Diplomacy and geographical proximity primarily determined the foreign relations maintained by Asoka. Particularly, the century in which, Asoka lived was one of continued interactions between the Eastern Mediterranean and South Asia. That is why most of Asoka's contacts were with South Asia and the West. It appears that this interest was not one sided. A fair number of foreigners lived in Pataliputra to necessitate a special committee under the municipal management to look after the needs of welfare of the visitors. Apart from these major factors determining the foreign relations of Asoka, one more parameter was the desire of Asoka to spread his policy of dhamma to distant lands.
To begin with, Asoka in his foreign relations was a realist defeat and annexation of Kalinga. Also his realism is to be seen in Asoka not annexing the southern kingdoms (Cholas, Pandvas, Satyaputras and Keralaputras) while being satisfied with theirac knowledgement of his suzerainty. He probably felt that it was not worth the trouble to annex the small territories too.
In other foreign relations Asoka reveals as an idealist or a monarch who wore the robes of a monk. He sent various missions, though not embassies, to various countries. Their main purpose was to acquaint the countries they visited with his policies, particularly that of dhamma. They may be compared to modern goodwill missions helping to create an interest in the ideas and peoples of the country from which they came. Also, the fact that they are quite unheard of in contemporary literature or in later sources would suggest that they made only a short-lived impression.
In spite of the above reservations, the missions must have opened a number of channels for the flow of Indian ideas and goods. It is unlikely that Asoka expected all the kings who had received missions to put the policy of dhamma into practice, although he claims that his did happen. It is curious to observe that there is no reference to these missions in the last important public declaration of Asoka, the seventh pillar edict. In this edict Asoka mentions the success he had with his welfare services and the widespread propagation of dhamma but all within the empire.
The territory immediately adjoining the empire of Asoka on the West and that Antiochus. There is ample evidence of contacts of similarity in cultures. The use of Kharoshti in the Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra edicts in the north is evidence of strong contact with Iran. The fragmentary Aramaic inscription at Taxila and another of the same kind from Kashmir point to continue inter communication between the two areas.
Apart from contacts with Iran, Asoka Empire was close to various Greek kingdoms. There are references to the Greeks in the rock edicts of Asoka. On certain occasions the word used refers to the Greek settlements in the north-west and on others to the Hellenic Kingdoms. Antiochus II these of Syria is more frequently mentioned. He other Hellenic Kings where missions were sent were Ptolemy-II Philadephus of Egypt, Magas of Cyrene, Antigonus gonatas of Messedonia, and Alexander of Eorius.
Apart from these western contacts, tradition maintains that Asoka visited Khotan. This cannot be substantiated. On the other hand, Asoka maintained close relations with modern Nepal. Tradition states that his daughter, Charumati was married to Devapala of Nepal.
On the East, the Mauryan empire included the provice of Vanga, Since Tamralipti was the principal port of the area, Indian missions to and from Ceylon are said to have traveled via Tamaralipti.
The extent of the influence of Asoka's power in South India is better documented than in north India. The edicts of Asoka are found at Gavimathi, Palkignuda, Brahmagiri, Maski, yerragudi and Siddapur, Tamil poets also make references to the Mauryas.
More Important were the contacts with Ceylon. Information is available in the Ceylonese Chronicles on contacts between India and Ceylon. Coming of Mahindra to Ceylon was not the first official contact. Earlier, Dhamma missions were sent. A Ceylonese king was so captivated by Asoka that the top called himself as Devanampiya. Asoka maintained close relations with Tissa, the ruler of Ceylon. Relationship between Asoka and Tissa was based on mutual admiration for each other.
What interests of the country or the aims of Asoka were served through his missions? Asoka primarily tried to propagate his dhamma and may be incidentally Buddhims. He claimed that he made a spiritual conquest of all the territories specified by him as well as a few more territories beyond them. This claim definitely appears to bean exaggeration. There is no historical evidence to show that Asoka missions did succeed in achieving their aim particularly when the dhamma happened to be highly humanistic and ethical in nature. After all, Asoka was neither a Buddha nor a Christ to appeal to various people. Neither a St. Peter nor an Ananda to successful spread the message of their Masters. Not did he possess fighting men to spread his message just as the followers of prophet Mohammed. Thus, when there is no follow up action after the missions visited the various parts of the world, it is understandable that no one paid any heed to his message.
Evertheless, there is one intriguing point about the success of his foreign missions. In likelihood, the history of the Buddha and his message must have spread to the various parts. What did they need to? Although it is difficult to answer this question, it is of importance to observe that there are certain similarities between Christianity and Buddhism - suffering of man, Mara & Satan, Sangha Monasteries with Bikshus and Monks, and the use of rosary by Buddhist and Christian's monks.


DECLINE OF THE MAURYAS
The decline of the Maurya Dynasty was rather rapid after the death of Ashoka/Asoka. One obvious reason for it was the succession of weak kings. Another immediate cause was the partition of the Empire into two. Had not the partition taken place, the Greek invasions could have been held back giving a chance to the Mauryas to re-establish some degree of their previous power.
Regarding the decline much has been written. Haraprasad Sastri contends that the revolt by Pushyamitra was the result of brahminical reaction against the pro-Buddhist policies of Ashoka and pro-Jaina policies of his successors. Basing themselves on this thesis, some maintain the view that brahminical reaction was responsible for the decline because of the following reasons.
• (a) Prohibitino of the slaughter of animals displeased the Brahmins as animal sacrifices were esteemed by them.
• (b) The book Divyavadana refers to the persecution of Buddhists by Pushyamitra Sunga.
• (c) Asoka's claim that he exposed the Budheveas (brahmins) as false gods shows that Ashoka was not well disposed towards Brahmins.
• (d) The capture of power by Pushyamitra Sunga shows the triumph of Brahmins.
All these four points can be easily refuted. Asoka's compassion towards animals was not an overnight decision. Repulsion of animal sacrifices grew over a long period of time. Even Brahmins gave it up by the book Divyavadana, cannot be relied upon since it was during the time of Pushyamitra Sunga that the Sanchi and Barhut stupas were completed. Probably the impression of the persecution of Buddhism was created by Menander's invasion who was a Budhhist. Thridly, the word 'budheva' is misinterpreted because this word is to be taken in the context of some other phrase. Viewed like this, this word has nothing to do with brahminism. Fourthly, the victory of Pushyamitra Sunga clearly shows that the last of the Mauryas was an incompetent ruler since he was overthrown in the very presence of his army, and this had nothing to do with brahminical reaction against Asoka's patronage of Budhism. Moreover, the very fact that a Brahmin was the commander in chief of the Mauryan ruler proves that the Mauryas and the Brahmins were on good terms.
After all, the distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism in India was purely sectarian and never more than the difference between saivism and vaishnavism. The exclusiveness of religious doctrines is a Semitic conception, which was unknown to India for a long time. Buddha himself was looked upon in his lifetime and afterwards as a Hindu saint and avatar and his followers were but another sect in the great Aryan tradition. Ashoka was a Buddhist in the same way as Harsha was a Budhist, or Kumarapala was a Jain. But in the view of the people of the day he was a Hindu monarch following one of the recognized sects. His own inscriptions bear ample withness to the fact. While his doctrines follow themiddle path, his gifts are to the brahmibns, sramansa (Buddhist priests) and others equally. His own name of adoption is Devanam Priya, the beloved of the gods. Which gods? Surely the gods of the Aryan religion. Buddhism had no gods of its own. The idea that Ashoka was a kind of Buddhist Constantine declearing himself against paganism is a complete misreading of India conditions. Asoka was a kind or Buddhist Constantine declearing himself against paganism is a complete misreading of India conditions. Asoka was essentially a Hindu, as indeed was the founder of the sect to which he belonged.
Raychaudhury too rebuts the arguments of Sastri. The empire had shrunk considerably and there was no revolution. Killing the Mauryan King while he was reviewing the army points to a palace coup detat not a revolution. The organization were ready to accept any one who could promise a more efficient organisation. Also if Pushyamitra was really a representative of brahminical reaction he neighbouting kings would have definitely given him assistance.
The argument that the empire became effete because of Asokan policies is also very thin. All the evidence suggests that Asoka was a stern monarch although his reign witnessed only a single campaign. He was shrewd enough in retaining Kalinga although he expressed his remorse. Well he was wordly-wise to enslave and-and-half lakh sudras of Kalinga and bring them to the Magadha region to cut forests and cultivate land. More than this his tours of the empire were not only meant for the sake of piety but also for keeping an eye on the centrifugal tendencies of the empire. Which addressing the tribal people Asoka expressed his willingness to for given. More draconian was Ashoka's message to the forest tribes who were warned of the power which he possessed. This view of Raychoudhury on the pacifism of the State cannot be substantiated.
Apart from these two major writers there is a third view as expressed by kosambi. He based his arguments that unnccessary measures were taken up to increase tax and the punch-marked coins of the period show evidence of debasement. This contention too cannot be up held. It is quite possible that debased coins began to circulate during the period of the later Mauryas. On the other hand the debasement may also indicate that there was an increased demand for silver in relation to goods leading to the silver content of the coins being reduced. More important point is the fact that the material remains of the post-Asokan era do not suggest any pressure on the economy. Instead the economy prospered as shown by archaeological evidence at Hastinapura and Sisupalqarh. The reign of Asoka was an asset to the economy. The unification of the country under single efficient administration the organization and increase in communications meant the development of trade as well as an opening of many new commercial interest. In the post - Asokan period surplus wealth was used by the rising commercial classes to decorate religious buildings. The sculpture at Barhut and Sanchi and the Deccan caves was the contribution of this new bourgeoisie.
Still another view regarding of the decline of Mauryas was that the coup of Pushyamitra was a peoples' revolt against Mauryans oppression and a rejection of the Maurya adoption of foreign ideas, as far interest in Mauryan Art.
This argument is based on the view that Sunga art (Sculpture at Barhut and Sanchi) is more earthy and in the folk tradition that Maruyan art. This is more stretching the argument too far. The character of Sunga art changed because it served a different purpose and its donors belonged to different social classes. Also, Sunga art conformed more to the folk traditions because Buddhism itself had incorporated large elements of popular cults and because the donors of this art, many of whom may have been artisans, were culturally more in the mainstream of folk tradition.
One more reasoning to support the popular revolt theory is based on Asoka's ban on the samajas. Asoka did ban festive meetings and discouraged eating of meat. These too might have entagonised the population but it is doubtful whether these prohibitions were strictly enforced. The above argument (people's revolt) also means that Asoka's policy was continued by his successors also, an assumption not confirmed by historical data. Further more, it is unlikely that there was sufficient national consciousness among the varied people of the Mauryan empire. It is also argued by these theorists that Asokan policy in all its details was continued by the later Mauryas, which is not a historical fact.
Still another argument that is advanced in favour of the idea of revolt against the Mauryas is that the land tax under the Mauryas was one-quarter, which was very burden some to the cultivator. But historical evidence shows something else. The land tax varied from region to region according to the fertility of the soil and the availability of water. The figure of one quarter stated by Magasthenes probably referred only to the fertile and well-watered regions around Pataliputra.
Thus the decline of the Mauryan empire cannot be satisfactorily explained by referring to Military inactivity, Brahmin resentment, popular uprising or economic pressure. The causes of the decline were more fundamental. The organization of administration and the concept of the State were such that they could be sustained by only by kings of considerably personal ability. After the death of Asoka there was definitely a weakening at the center particularly after the division of the empire, which inevitably led to the breaking of provinces from the Mauryan rule.
Also, it should be borne in mind that all the officials owed their loyalty to the king and not to the State. This meant that a change of king could result in change of officials leading to the demoralization of the officers. Mauryas had no system of ensuring the continuation of well-planned bureaucracy.
The next important weakness of the Mauryan Empire was its extreme centralization and the virtual monopoly of all powers by the king. There was a total absence of any advisory institution representing public opinion. That is why the Mauryas depended greatly on the espionage system. Added to this lack of representative institutions there was no distinction between the executive and the judiciary of the government. An incapable king may use the officers either for purposes of oppression or fail to use it for good purpose. And as the successors of Asoka happened to be weak, the empire inevitably declined.
Added to these two factors, there is no conception of national unity of political consciousness. It is clear from the fact that even the resistance against the greeks as the hated miecchas was not an organized one. The only resistance was that of the local rulers who were afraid of losing their newly acquired territory. It is significant that when Porus was fighting Alexander, or when Subhagasena was paying tribute to Antiochus, they were doing so as isolated rulers in the northwest of India. They had no support from Pataliputra, nor are they even mentioned in any Indian sources as offering resistance to the hated Yavanas. Even the heroic Porus, who, enemy though he was, won the admiration of the Greeks, is left unrecorded in Indian sources.
Another associated point of great importance is the fact that the Mauryan Empire which was highly centralized and autocratic was the first and last one of its kind. If the Mauryan Empire did not survive for long, it could be because of the failure of the successors of Asoka to hold on to the principles that could make success of such an empire. Further, the Mauryan empire and the philosophy of the empire was not in tune with the spirit of the time because Aryanism and brahminism was very much there. According to the Brahmin or Aryan philosophy, the king was only an upholder of dharma, but never the crucial or architecture factor influencing the whole of life. In other words, the sentiment of the people towards the political factor, that is the State was never established in India. Such being the reality, when the successors of Asoka failed to make use of the institution and the thinking that was needed to make a success of a centralized political authority. The Mauryan Empire declined without anyone's regret.
Other factors of importance that contributed to the decline and lack of national unity were the ownership of land and inequality of economic levels. Land could frequently change hands. Fertility wise the region of the Ganges was more prosperous than northern Deccan. Mauryan administration was not fully tuned to meet the existing disparities in economic activity. Had the southern region been more developed, the empire could have witnessed economic homogeneity.
Also the people of the sub-continent were not of uniform cultural level. The sophisticated cities and the trade centers were a great contrast to the isolated village communities. All these differences naturally led to the economic and political structures being different from region to region. It is also a fact that even the languages spoken were varied. The history of a sub-continent and their casual relationships. The causes of the decline of the Mauryan empire must, in large part, be attributed to top heavy administration where authority was entirely in the hands of a few persons while national consciousness was unknown.


Asoka's Dhamma
NEED OF DHARMA
1. There was considered intellectual ferment around 600 B.C. healthy rivalry was apparent among the number of sects such as the Charvaks, Jains and Ajivikas, whose doctrines ranged from bare materialism to determinism. This intellectual liveliness was reflected in the elected interests of the Mauryan rulers. It was claimed by the Jainas that Chandragupta was supporter and there is evidence that Bindusara favoured the Ajivikas.
Thus, the Empire of Asoka was inhabited by peoples of many cultures who were at many levels of development. The range of customs, beliefs, affinities, antagonisms, tensions and harmonies were galore. True, Magadha and the fringes of these areas. The north was in close contact with the Hellenized culture of Afganisthan and Iran. The far south was on the threshold of a creative efflorescence of Tamil culture. The ruler of such as Empire required the perceptions were addressed to the public at large. It is in these inscriptions that the king expounds his ideas on dhamma.
It appears, Asoka aimed at creating an attitude of mind among his subjects in which social behavior was accorded the highest place. The ideology of dhamma can be viewed as a focus of loyalty and as a point of convergence for the then bewildering diversities of the Empire. In a way, Asoka's dhamma was akin to the preamble in the constitution of India.
2. A centralized monarchy demands oneness of feeling on the part of its people. The ethics of the dhamma was intended to generate such a feeling, comparable to the preamble of the Indian Constitution.
3. The Mauryan Society with its heterogeneous elements and with economic, social and religious forces working against each other posed the threat of disruption. Asoka, therefore, needed some binding factor to allow the economic activity to proceed on an even keel and thereby ensure the security of his state.
4. Also as the commercial classes gained economic importance and resented the inferior social status as per the sanctions of the Brahmins, they want over to Buddhism, which preached social equality. Their support to the Mauryan king was very vital for the peace and prosperity of the Empire. Asoka thought that he could attract them by the propagation of this dhamma by weaning them away from too closely identifying themselves with Buddhism.
5. Asoka felt that the aforesaid forces of contrary pulls would threaten the peace of the realm not in the general interest of his Empire. Asoka's dhamma therefore, was intended to serve a practical purpose.
The dhamma was not meant to be a religion but what behooves a man of right feeling to do, or what man of sense would do. Such being the nature of his dhamma, it is primarily an ethic of social conduct.
Asoka's Moral code is most concisely formulated in the second Minor Rock Edict.
Thus saith His Majesty:
'Father and mother must be obeyed; similarly respect for living creatures must be enforced, truth must be spoken. These are the virtues of the law of Duty (or "Peity". Dhamma) which must be practisd. Similarly, the teacher must be reverenced by the pupil, and proper courtesy must be shown to relations.
This is the ancient standard of duty (or "Piety") - leads to length of days and according to this men must act.
The three obligations - of showing reverence, respecting animal life, and telling the truth - are inculcated over and over again in the edicts.
Besides, it was meant for all - Buddhists, brahmins, Jains and Ajivikas, In the way, it was the sara or the essence of the good principles of all religions. Also, while pleading on behalf of his dhamma, Asoka passionately appealed for toleration towards all religions and a reverence for each other.
Had this dhamma got anything to do with Buddhist principles, Asoka would have openly stated so in his edicts since he never southt to hid/his support for Buddhism. For that matter, Asoka did not incorporate any of the fundamental tenets of Buddhist faith such as the Four Noble Truths, the chain of casualty the sacred eight-fold path, and the Nirvana. The omissions, also with repeated reference to the concept of svarga or heaven (a Hindu belief) show that his dhamma cannot be identified with Buddhism.
Since Asoka's dhamma was not intended for the cause of Buddhims during his dharama-yatras, he not only visited various places of Buddhist importance, but also gave gifts to sramanas and Brahmins. Most of all, even after entrusting the propagation of dhamma to the Dharma Mahamatras, Asoka continued to style himself as the beloved of the devas, a Hindu concept, since there were no Gods in Buddhism at that time.
SUCCESS OF HIS DHARMA
Asoka specifically states that his missions were sent to various places (Ceylon and various Western countries) and maintains that they were all successful. It is difficult to accept this claim because historical evidence shows that his officials overshot the mark. Definitely, there was resentment against their way of doing things. It is known from evidence that Asoka presumed that not only he was a seeker of truth but also he did reach the truth. Such convictions are always harmful. Most of all, it is important to note that there is no authentic proof that his missions were a success. Significantly, none of Asoka's successors continued the propagation of dhamma. Far worse is the fact that in the later ages, his pillar inscriptions came to be misunderstood as symbols of phallus.





The splendour of the 'Dark Centuries'
The five centuries which passed between the decline of the first great Indian empire of the Mauryas and the emergence of the great classical empire of the Guptas has often been described as a dark period in Indian history when foreign dynasties fought each other for short-lived and ephemeral supremacy over Northern India. Apart from Kanishka's Indo-Central Asian empire which could claim to be similar in size and importance to has china, the parthians of Persia and to the contemporary Roman empire this period did lack the glamour of large empires. But this 'dark period' particularly the first two centuries AD was a period of intensive economic and cultural contact among the various parts of the Eurasian continent. Indian played a very active role in stimulating these contacts. Buddhism which has been fostered by Indian rulers since the days of Ashoka was greatly aided by the international connections of the Indo-Greeks and the Kushanas and thus rose to prominence in Central Asia. South India was establishing its important links with the West and with Southeast Asia in this period. These links especially those with southeast Asia, proved to be very important for the future course of Asian history.
But India it self experienced important social and cultural changes in this period. For centuries Buddhism had enjoyed royal patronage. This was partly due to the fact that the foreign rulers of India found Buddhism more accessible than orthodox Hinduism. The Vedic Brahmins had been pushed into the background by the course of historical development all though Hinduism as such did not experience a decline. On the contrary new popular cults arose around gods like Shiva, Krishna and Vishnu-Vasudeva who had played only a marginal role in an earlier age. The competition between Buddhism which dominated the royal courts and cities and orthodox Brahminism which was still represented by numerous Brahmin families every where left enough scope for these new cults to gain footholds of their own, of great importance for the further development of Hinduism and particularly for the Hindu idea of kingship was the Kushana rulers identification with certain Hindu gods - they were actually believed to attain a complete identity with the respective god after their death.
Religious legitimation was of greater importance to these foreign rulers than to other Indian kings. Menander's ashes had been distributed according to the Buddhist fashion and Kanishka was identified with Mithras but wima kadphises and Huvishka were closer to shiva as shown by the images on their coins. Huvishka's coins provide a regular almanac of the iconography of the early Shiva cult. The deification of the ruler which was so prevalent in the Roman and Hellenistic world as well as among the Iranians was thus introduced into India and left a mark on the future development of Hindu Kingship.
Another future of crucial importance for the future political development of India was the organization of the Shaka and Kushana Empires had been, but were based on the large-scale incorporation of local rulers. In subsequent centuries many regional Empires of India were organized on this pattern.
The most well-known contribution of the 'dark-period' was a course, to Indian art. After the early sculptures of the Mauryas which were greatly influenced by the Iranian style, a new Indian style, a new Indian style has fist emerged under Shungas and their successors in the Buddhist monuments of Bharhut and Sanchi which particularly showed a new style of relief sculpture. The merger of the Gandhara school of art, with its Graeco-Roman style and the Mathura school of art which included 'archaic' Indian elements and became the center of Indo-Kushana art, finally led to the rise of the Sarnath school of art. This school then set the pattern of the classical Gupta style.
Less-well-known, but much more important for the future development of Hindu society, was the compilation of the authoritative Hindu law books (dharmasastra), the foremost of them being the code of Manu which probably originated in the second or third century AD. After the breakdown of the Maurya and Shunga Empires, there must have been a period of uncertainty, which led to renewed interest in traditional social norms. These were then codified so as to remain inviolate for all times to come. If we add to this the resurgence of Sanskrit, as testified by Rudradaman's famous rock inscription of the second century AD. We see that this 'dark-period' actually contained all the element of the classical culture of the Gupta age, Thus the many splendoured and much maligned 'dark-period' was actually the harbinger of the classical age.


POST-MAURYAN PERIOD (20BC - 300AD)
ECONOMY AND SOCIETY
In the post-Mauryan era (200 BC. To 300 A.D.) the economy moved at an accelerated tempo. Society witnessed structural reorientation as significant groups of foreigners penetrated into India and chose to be identified with the rest of the community.
The occupation of craftsmen was an important segement of the day's socio-economic milieu. The craftsment were not only associated with the towns but also villages like Karimnagar in the Telengana region of Andhra Pradesh. The categories of craftsmen who were known in this period bear out the truth that there was considerable specialization in mining and metallurgy. A large number of iron artifacts have been discovered at various excavated sites relating to the Kushan and Satavahans Periods. It is surprising to notice that the Telengana region appears to have made special progress in iron artifacts - not only weapons but also balance rods, sickles, ploughshares, razors and ladels have been found in the Karimnagar and Nalgonda districts. Also, cutlery made out of iron and steel was exported to the Abyssinian ports.
Equally significant was the progress made in cloth-making and silk-weaving. Dyeing was a craft of repute in some south Indian towns like Uraiyur, a shurb of Tiruchirapalli, and Arikamedu. The use of oil was also high because of the invention of oil wheel. The inscriptions of the day mention weavers, goldsmiths, dyers, workers in metal and ivory, jewelers, sculptors, fishermen, perfumers and smiths as the donors of caves, pillars, tablets, cisterns etc. Among the luxury items the important ones were ivory and glass articles and beed cutting. At the beginning of the coristian era the knowledge of glass-blowing reached India and attained its peak. Coin minting also reached a high level of excellence made out of gold, silver, copper, bronze, lead and potin. A coint mould of the Satavahans period shows that through it half a dozen coins could be turned out a time.
In urban handicrafts the pride of place goes to the beautiful pieces of terracotta produced in profuse quantities. They have been found in most of the sites belonging to the Kushan and Satavahans periods. In particular, terracotta figures of great beauty have been found in the Nalgonda district of Telengana. The terracotta figures were mostly meant for the use of upper classes in towns.
This immense manufacturing activity was maintained by guilds. At least to dozen kinds of guilds were there. Most of the artisans known from inscriptions hailed from the Mathura region and the western Deccan which lay on the trade routes leading to the ports on the western coast.
The guilds, coming from the days of the Mauryan period, became a more important factor in the urban life both in being instrumental to increase in production and moulding public opinion. The primary guilds of the day were those of the potters, metal workers and carpenters. Some guilds organized their own distribution system while owning a large number of boats to transport goods from various ports on the Ganges.
The guilds of the day fixed their own rules of work and the standards of the finished products. They exercised care regarding price also to safeguard the interest of both the artisan and the customer. They controlled the price of the manufactured articles. He conduct of the guild members was regulated through a guild court. The customary uses of the guilds had the same force as those of laws.
The extensive activity of the guilds can be known from their seals and emblems. The banners and insignia of each guild were carried in procession of festive occasions. These prosperous guilds in addition, donated large sums of money to religious institutions and charitable causes.
Since the activity of the guilds was so buoyant, it appears that they attracted the attention of kings too. It is said that kings had financial interests in guilds. Royalty invested its money in commercial activities. This naturally led to protection being provided by State to the guilds. Regarding the activities of guilds, it appears from inscriptions that they acted asbankers, financiers and trustees although these activities were carried out by a separate class of people known as sresthins. Usury was a part of banking and the general rate of interest was around 15% loans extended to sea-trade carried higher interest rate. An authority of the day states that the rate of interest should vary according to the caste of the man to whom money is lent.
Interestingly, apart from the guilds, there were workers bodies also. The workers co-operative included artisans and various crafts associated with a particular enterprise. The classic example of this activity was the co-operative of builders, which has its members drawn from specialized workers such as architects. Engineers, bricklayers etc.
The immense commercial activity was bolstered by the thriving trade between India and the Easter Roman Empire. With the movement of Central Asian people like Sakas, Parthians and Kushans, trade came to be carried across the sea. Among the ports, the important ones were Broach and Sopara on the western coast, and Arikamedu and Tamralipti on the eastern coast. Out of these ports Broach was the most important as not only goods were exported from here but a also goods were received. Across land, the converging point of trade routes was Taxila, which was connected with the Silk Route passing through Central Asia. Ujjain was the meeting point of good number of trade routes.
The trade between India and Rome mostly consisted of luxury goods. To begin with Rome got her imports from the southern most portions of the country. The Roman imports were Muslims, pearls, jewels and precious stones from Central and South India. Iron articles formed an important item of export to the Roman Empire. For certain articles India became the clearing house, as for example, silk from China because of impediments posed by the Parthian rule in Iran and the neighboring areas.
The Romans, in return, exported to India various types of potters found in excavations at places like Tamluk in West Bengal, Arikamedu nevar Pondicherry and a few other places. Probably lead was important from Rome. It is also presumed that the Kushans had brisk trade with the Romans as they conquered Mesopotamia in 115 A.D. At a place close to Kabul, glass jars made in Italy, Egypt and Syria have come to light, apart from small bronze statues of Greko-Roman style, And the most significant Roman export to India was the gold and silver coins - nearly 85 finds of Roman coins have been found. There is nothing surprising in the lamentation of the Roman writer Pliny in the 1st century A.D. that Roman was being drained of gold on account of trade with India.
Indian kingdoms sent embassies to Rome the best known being the one sent about 25 B.C. Which included strange collection of men and animals-tigers, snakes, tortoises a monk and an armless boy who could shoot arrows with his toes. This mission reached Rome during the days of Emperor Augustus in 21 B.C.
In the southern kingdoms maritime trade occupied the pride of place. The literature of the day refers to harbours, docks, light houses and custom offices. Large variety of ships were built, both for short distance as well as long distance voyages. According to pliny the largest Indian ship was 75 tons. Other sources mention higher figures.
In the self-same period there was a boom in trade with south-East Asia. This was first occasioned by the Roman demand for spices. Gradually this trade grew in dimensions.
The growing number of strangers in the port towns and trade centers led to their absorbing Indian habits as their numbers grew, social laws of the day became rigid as to be seen from the law code of Manu. Further as conversions to Hinduism was technically impossible the non-Indian groups gradually grew into separate sub-castes. After all the conversion of a single individual was a problem but the device of caste made such absorption easier. Moreover the foreigners found it easier to become Buddhists instead of Aryans. Faced one theoretical knowledge confined to brahmins and the other practical and technical knowledge which became the preserve of the professionals.
It was during this period Dharmashastras came to be written. These Shastras made the social structure to be rigid. Apart from these writings poetry and drama were also popular. The outstanding poem in Tamil was Shilappadigaram. Another poem in Tamil was Manimegalai. In Sanskrit, Asvaghosa and Bhasa were the two great dramatists. The manuscripts of Asvaghosa were found in a monastry in Turdan in Central Asia. Both of his plays deal with Buddhist themes. Bhasa appeared a couple of centuries later. His plays are based on the incident from the spics or historical romances around the exploits of king udayan in Avanti.
In the field of plastic art. Great were the achievement of this period like the stupas at Sanchi and Bar hut the caves at Karlellora and Ajanta. At Amravati the great age of painting began. Also the sculptures at Amravati show a mastery of stone sculpture and with the mathura school of sculpture the Indian tradition of sculpture began.
The booming trade and commerce of the period was at the base of the urban settlements that came into existence. The important towns of northern India were Vaishali, Pataliputra, Varanasi, Kausambi, Sravasti, Hastinapur, Mathura and Indraprastha. Most of the towns flourished in the Kushan period as revealed by excavations. The excavations at Sonkh in Mathura show as many as seven levels of the Kushan are but only one of the Gupta period. Again in Jalandhar, Ludhiana and Ropar also several sites show good Kushan structures. The Satayahans kingdown also witnessed thriving towns like Tagar, Paithan, Dhanyakataka, Amravati, Nagarjunakonda, Broach, Sopara, Arikamedu and Kaveripattanam.


HISTORY AND IMPACT OF Indo-Greeks
After Alexander the Great, the greed seleukidan dynasty of Persia held on to the trans-Indus region. After seleukos Nikator was defeated by Chanragupta Maurya in 303 B.C. the trans-Indus region was transferred to the Mauryas. In mid third century B.C. the seleukidan rule was ended by two peoples. In Iran the parthiar became independent and their sassanians in 226 A.D. In like manner the greeks of Bactria rose in revolt under the leadership of Diodotus. These Greeks were later known as Indo-Greeks when they gained a foot-hold in the Indian sub-continent.
Bactria situated between the Hindu Kush and the oxus, was a fertile region and it controlled the trade routes from Gandhara to the West. The greek settlement in Bactria began in the 5th century B.C. when Persian emperors settled the Greek exiles in that area.
Bactria figured in history with the revolt of diodotus against Antiochus the seleukidan king. This breakaway of Bactria was recnised by the seleukidans when the grandson of Diodotus, Enthymemes. Was given a seleukidan bride in about 200 B.C.
About the same time the seleukidan king defeated king subhagasena after crossing the Hindu Kush in 206 B.C. This defeat reveals the unguarded nature of northwestern India.
Thus begins the history of Indo-Greeks. The history of the Indo-Greeks is mainly gathered from their coins. This evidence is very often confusion because many kings had identical names.
The son of Euthydemos, Demetrios, Conquered modern southern afghanistion and the Makran area he also occupied some parts of Punjab. Then around 175 B.C. the homeland of Bactrians came to be ruled by Eukratides, another branch of the Bactrians. His son Demetrios-II penetrated deep into the Punjab proceeding along the Indus, he penetrated till kutch.
The most known Indo-Greek was Menander, whose claim rests on the Buddhist treatise the Questions of king Milinda-discussion between menander and the Buddhist philosopher, Nagasena and he ruled the Punjab from C.160 to 140 B.C.
Menander not only stabilized his power but extended his frontiers. His coins are to be found in the region extending from Kabul to Mathura near Delhi. He attempted to conquer the Ganges valley but in vain. Probabley he was defeated by the Sungas.
After menander one Strato ruled. At that time Bactaria was rule by a different group of Bactrians. Probably Mitrhadates - I of Persia annexed the region of Taxila during the third quarter of the second century B.C.
A little later, Antialkidas ruled from Taxila as known from the inscription from besnagar near Bhilsa. This inscription was incised on the order of Heliodoros, who was the envoy of antialkidas in the court of Besnagar. Heliodoros got a monolithic column built in honour of vasudeva. Thus began the Bhakti cult of Vasudeva.
The last known greek kings were hippostratos and Hermaeus, the former defeated by moga and the latter by khadphisus.
Indo-Greek influence declined from the time Bactria itself was attacked by the nomadic tribes from central Asia, the scythians.
The penetration of Indo-Greeks, as well as of sakas pahlavas and Kushana influenced the government, society, religion literature and art of ancient India. The very fact that India absorbed influences of these foreigners speaks for the then youthful nature of Indian civilization.
The extent of Greek influence of Indian Civilisation is a most point. Whatever the Greek influence that was felt by India came in the wake of Alexander's invasion of the cast and the settlement of Greeks in the Bactrian region. Alexander himself cannot be regarded as the standard bearer of the heritage of ancient Greece. By the time Alexander and his soldiers marched towards the east the culture of Greece was on the decline hence at the most Alexander and his men could have spread a debased version of the great Geek civilization represented by Socrates, Plato, Phidia, Aristotle, Sophocles, Pythagoras and others. Despite the fact that Alexander and his men could not be the true torch bearers of Greek culture to the east, the traces of Greek influence could be definitely found on India civilization.
To begin with, the invasion of Alexander left very little imprint on Indian civilization. Indian rulers did not adopt the military tactics of Alexander, but continued to rely on their forefold organization. Although the region that was beyond the Hindu Kush in the Mauryan period was definitely in close contact with whatever the Greek influence that was there, the Greek influence was not felt in the interior of India. Probably the use of stone in buildings and sculptures by the Mauryas was inspired by the Greek practice of working in stone. Columns of the Ionic order were definitely used in the buildings of Taxila.
To speak point wise, the first influence of the Greeks was on the divine right theory of kingship. The Indo-Greeks took high sounding title e like divine kings, sons of gods, etc. and maintained the myth of Empire. Even before Indo-Greek rulers established themselves in India the services of the Greeks were utilized. Ashoka appointed a Greek as very viceroy of his province. And after the Indo-Greek period, a Greek, during the period of Kushans, was entrusted with engineering work.
Talking of social life, a number of Greeks figure as donors in the inscription of the Karle caves. The Greek mode of wearing hair and the habit of eating in a lying posture came into vogue. Also when some of the Indo-Greeks settled in India, they took to trade and they became affluent merchants. Even Tamil literature refers to Greek ships bringing cargoes, and the Greek section of Kaveripatnam was very prosperous. And some of the Tamil kings kept Greek body-guards.
Regarding science, contemporary writers admit the greatness of the Greek scientists. The Gargi Samhita admits that the Greeks were like gods in science and they penetrated into India as far as Pataliputra. Varahmihira, during the Gupta age was in the know of Greek science and used a number of Greek technical terms in his works, It is also argued that Charaka was influenced by the works of Hippocrates, the father of Medicine, but there is not evidence to confirm this view. Thus it is difficult to conjecture the extent to which ancient scientists of India were influenced by the scientific knowledge of Greeks.
In the field of art, first the Indo-Greeks did contribute to die cutters' art. They showed a remarkable skill in making the portraits of rulers. Also the Greek kings adopt some of the indigenous methods of minting the coins. Although Indians did not fully learn the fine art of die-cutting, the coins of Indian rulers were influenced by the Greeks. Indian adopted the art of striking coins with two dies, the obverse and the reverse. Secondly, the curious open air theatre that came into being in this period was directly a Greek legacy. The term Yavanika for curtain shows that Indian drama, at least on one point, was influenced by the Greek model, Thridly, the Greek form of sculpture influenced the Gandhara art of the Kushan period. The school began in the Kabul valley where the Greek influence was the maximum. Accordingly tone author, the terracottas of toys and plaques were all influenced by the Greeks.
In the religious field too, the Greek influence was felt, as borne out by Millinda-Panho and the Besnagar inscription. Legions of Greeks were converted into Indian religions of the day. One Greek officer, Theodorus, got the relics of the Buddha enshrined in the Swat valley. Besides, Hindu iconography was greatly changed because of the Indo-Greek influences. It is difficult to say how many Babylonian and Iranian Gods were incorporated in Hindu religions. A few deities were taken over by the Parthians and they were adopted by the Kushans. But it is doubtful to say as to which of the Greek dieities were incorporated in the Pantheon of Indian gods.
All told, the Greek influence was mostly felt in art (the Gangdhara sculptures, which probably influenced the later day Mathura sculptures) and in religion (gave a fillip to Mahayana Buddhism and popularized the Bhakti aspect of religion as pioneered by the vasudeva cult).



Andhra Satavahanas
ORIGIN :
(a) Aitrareya Brahmana puts the Adhras beyond the pale of Aryanism.

(b) Nasik Prasasti lays claim to Gautmi as a brahamana.

(c) Puranas called them their services to Aryanism they were - admitted to the Aryan folk after their services to Arynanism - there is a reference to them in the Asoka inscriptions as well as by Megasthenes.

(d) Some call them Brahmins - some, mixed Brahmins of Naga origin, aqnd some, protectors of Brahmins,

(e) Numismatic evidence points to the origin in Western Deccan and Madhya Pradesh. Epigraphic and literary evidence points to their western origin - the figure of the founder of the dynasty is found in paition in western Deccan.

(f) Epigraphic evidence refers to them as Satavahanas, not as Andhras.

(g) Possibly, Andhra is the Tribal name : Satavahana, the dynastic name, and satakarni, the Surname.
SOURCES :
(a) Puranas - mention 30 kings,.

(b) Aitrareya Brahmina.

(c) Literary sources -- Gunadhya's Brihatkatha. And Leelavati, which deals with the military exploits of Hala.

(d) Nasik inscription of Gautami Balsari.

(e) Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela for inferring the date of the first ruler.

(f) Sanchi inscription extent of the Satavahanas kingdom till Malwa.
CHORONOLOGY:
(a) The founder war one Simukha - probably the first century B.C. - supplanted the lingering Sunga and Kanva rulers - rule of the dynasty was for 300 years. Simuka was succeed by Krishna or Kanha.

(b) The next known king was Satakarni - the kingdom expanded - probably defeated by Kharavela - performed Ashvamedha Pratishthana was the capital - confusion after him. Kshaharatas or sakas occupied parts of Maharashtra.

(c) Hala is the 17th in the list of Puranas - his book is saptasataka - deals with both erortic and philosophical themes. Gundhaya's Brihatkatha deals with the rivalry between Prikrit and Sanskrit.

(d) Beginning from 25 A.D. to 75 A.D. there was confusion - saka eruption.

(e) The greatest ruler was Gautamiputra Satakarni. He was the 23rd according to Pupranas - around 72 A.D. the Nasik inscription of his mother talks of his being the destroyer of Sakas, Yavanas and Kshaharata - also says that he crushed the pride of Kshatrias - overran konan, Saurashtra, Bihar and Malva. A Philanthropist, he maintained Arya Dharma - put an end to Varna - Sankara - some regard him to be Vikramaditya. Built the city of Benakataka and assumed the titles of Raja Raja and Svamin.

(f) The next known ruler was Pulumayi II around 96 A.D. - first ruled Andhra country - Vaijyanti and Amaravati famous cities - Satavahanas a naval power - probably overseas colonisation - large number of inscription.

(g) The next know ruler was Vasishtiputra Batakarni of sri Pulumayi - married the daughter of Rudradaman, a Saka ruler -- however Rudradaman twice defeated him. Also, Sri Pulumayi lost to Chastana, son of Bhosmotika.

(h) Next known ruler was Yajna Sri Satakarni - around 160 A.D. - Malva, Kathiawad and North Konkan - inscription found in Konkan and Krishna - coints found in Gujarat and Kathiawad - defeated Kshatapas.

(i) After the declined Salankeyanas ruled over the Satavahana territory.
IMPORTANCE :
(b) (1) The Very area over which they ruled was important connecting link between link between northern and southern India - Andhras were instrumental in spreading Aryan culture to the south.

(2) Their colonizing activities spread to South-East Asia - influence of Amaravati sculptures on South-East Asian sculptures.

(3) They did maintain contact between India and the Western world in matters of trade.

(4) They were instrumental in curbing the penetration of Sakas further into south.

(5) Some of the later southern dynastic like Ikshvakus, Kadambas, Tarikutakas and Abhiras continued the Satavahan tradition and the Pallsvas and the Chalukya claimed the tradition of Satavahanas.
SATAVAHANA ACHIEVEMENTS
The government if the Satavahana kingdom was organized on the traditional lines. The kingdom was divided into Janapadas, which were further sub-divided into aharas. Each ahara was under an Amataya. The basic unit of the ahara was the grama with the village headman called gamika. Central control was maintained over the provices. Princes were generally made viceroys. And the kings did not assume high-sounding titles. They were expected to maintain dharma.
Taxation was not burden some. The state derived its income from crown lands, court fees, fines and ordinary taxes on lands. The extraordinary taxes of the Mauryan period were not imposed. In general, Central control was not high because feudal traits emerged in the Satavahana period. The feudal chiefs like maharathas mahasenapatis and mahabhojas issued their own coins.
The area under the satavahanas in general witnessed considerable prosperity. There was brisk trade. Broach was the most important port and it had a vast and rich hinterland. Pratishthana produced cotton cloth. Tagara and Ujjain produced muslin. The chief imports were wines, copper, tin, lead and gold and silver coins. Another important port was kalyan mentioned in the Perilus. The other ports were Sopara, Goa and pigeon islands. Within the kingdom there were important cities like Tagara, Prathishthana, Nasik, Junnar and Dhanyakataka. Koddura and Chinnaganjam were the important ports on the east. The general life led by the people was similar to the one portrayed in Vatsayana's Kama-Sutra.
Evidence also shows that a good number of people emigrated from the Deccan to colonize the regions in South-East Asia
The Satavahanas and Shiva were worshiped. Saptasataka reveals the worship of many Hindu deities. Vaishnavasim and Shavism grew popular. Gautamiputra-Satakarni claimed himself to be the protector of brahmins. The Naisk prasasthi states that Varnashrama Dharmawas maintained.
Buddhism too was popular. Both the sakas and Satavahanas encouraged Buddhism. Ushavadata mare several grants to Buddhist monks. Some of these grants were renewed by Guatamiputra Satakarni. Buddhist momuments and stupas came into existence at Nasik, Vidisa, Bhattiprolu, Goli, Ghantasala and Amaravati. It was at the last plece that most probably human figures were carved out for the first time. And the stupa at this place had a marble railing with relief sculptures. A vaijayanti merchant was responsible for enriching Karle and Kanheri Buddhist caves. Merchants from Nasik contributed to the caves at Vidisa and Bharhut. In brief cave architecture and building of stupas witnessed certain development under the auspices of the satavahanas; and the donations or the merchants belonging to the guilds prove the commercial prosperity of the area.
Emcouraged by wealth the kings patronized literature and architecture. Hala was an authority on the Puranas. He was the author of Sapta-Sataka. It is said that Hala paid as much as 40 million pieces of gold for four kavyas. Leelavati deals with the military campaigns of Hala.
The kings encouraged architecture. The five gateways at Sanchi the rock-cut Chaity-halls of Bhaja, Karle, Nasik and Kanheri and the stupas at Amaravati, Bhattiprolu, Goli and Ghantasala were built in this period. The capitals of the pillars in Karle caves are elaborately sculptured. The dome and the base of the Amaravati stupa is elaborately sculptured. Jataka stories were incised on marble slabs. The upper part of the dome is a beautiful floral design. It is generally said that its construction began during the t8ime of Gautamiputra Satakarni and was completed during the time of Yajna Sri Satakarni. Most probably two Ajanta Frescoes (9th and 10th) came into existence during this period.
The satavahanas weregreat excavators of cave temples and the magnificent temples of Ellora and Ajanta were the continuation of the Satavahana tradition to which all Middle Indian dynasties in succeeding ages claimed historic relationship. The basic tradition in Middle India is of the Satavahana empire. As in the north it is of the Mauryan. From the point of view of historic continuity it is important to remember this primary fact as up to quite recent times the traditions flowing from the satavahanas were living factors in Indian history.
Satavahana Administration
The Satavahana administration was very simple and was according to the principle laid down in Dharmashastras. The king laid no claim of divine right. They had only the most modest title of rajan. They had no absolute power. Their power was checked in practice by customs and shastras. The king was the commander of war and of threw himself into the thickest of the frays.
A peculiar feature of the Satavahana administration was the presence of feudatories of different grade. The highest class was that of petty princes bearing the kingly title raja and striking coins in their own names. Next in rank was the maharathi and mahabhoja. Both titles from the beginning were hereditary and restricted to a few families in a few localities. Probably mahabhoja ranked higher than that of maharathi.
The mahabhojas were the feudatories of Satavahanas. They were primarily located in western Deccan. They were related by blood to the feudatory maharathi. It is definitely known that the maharathis were the feudatories of Satavahanas. They also granted in their own name villages with physical immunities attached to them. The maharathis of the chitaldrug enjoyed the additional privilege of issuing coins in their own name.
Towards the close of the Satavahana period two more feudatories were created Mahasenapathi and them mahataralavara.
Barring districts that were controlled by feudatories, the empire was divided into janapadas and aharas, the latter corresponding to modern districts. The division below that of ahara was grama. Non-hereditary governors were subject to periodical transfers. There were other functionaries like great chamberlain store-keepers treasurers and dutakas who carried royal orders.
The government lived from hand to mouth. The taxes were neither heavy nor many. The sources of income were proceeds from the royal domain, salt monopoly ordinary and extraordinary taxes both soldiers and officials were paid in kind. The Satavahana administration was very simple and was according to the principle laid down in Dharmashastras. The king laid no claim of divine right. They had only the most modest title of rajan. They had no absolute power. Their power was checked in practice by customs and shastras. The king was the commander of war and of threw himself into the thickest of the frays.
A peculiar feature of the Satavahana administration was the presence of feudatories of different grade. The highest class was that of petty princes bearing the kingly title raja and striking coins in their own names. Next in rank was the maharathi and mahabhoja. Both titles from the beginning were hereditary and restricted to a few families in a few localities. Probably mahabhoja ranked higher than that of maharathi.
The mahabhojas were the feudatories of Satavahanas. They were primarily located in western Deccan. They were related by blood to the feudatory maharathi. It is definitely known that the maharathis were the feudatories of Satavahanas. They also granted in their own name villages with physical immunities attached to them. The maharathis of the chitaldrug enjoyed the additional privilege of issuing coins in their own name.
Towards the close of the Satavahana period two more feudatories were created Mahasenapathi and them mahataralavara.
Barring districts that were controlled by feudatories, the empire was divided into janapadas and aharas, the latter corresponding to modern districts. The division below that of ahara was grama. Non-hereditary governors were subject to periodical transfers. There were other functionaries like great chamberlain store-keepers treasurers and dutakas who carried royal orders.
The government lived from hand to mouth. The taxes were neither heavy nor many. The sources of income were proceeds from the royal domain, salt monopoly ordinary and extraordinary taxes both soldiers and officials were paid in kind.


MAHAYANA BUDDHISM
According to tradition three Buddhist Councils were held to resolve the doctrinal differences among Buddhist leaders. Only regarding the fourth that was held in Kashmir there is historical evidence. From then nowadays Buddhism came to be divided into the Mahayana and Hinayana schools. The brahmins and their lay supporters had by now largely turned away from the older gods. In north-western India the rule of Greeks. Sakas and Kushans in turn threw open the gates to the west. It was these new elements that sought a new outlook in Buddhism. Thus the claim arose that a new Great Vehicles (Mahayana) was found would carry many souls to salvation.
Mahayana soon became popular in many parts of India as it fitted with the mood of the times and the needs of many simple people better than did the lesser Vehicle (Hinayana). The lesser Vehicle remained intact in ceyton and soon in Thailand and other parts of South-East Asia it became the national religion. Mahayana on the other hand it self (soon divided by various schisms) was carried by succession of Indian monks to China and thence to Japan.
Regarding Mahayana's chronological authenticity it is generally held that it originated around the first century B.C. in Andhra. Soon it was expounded by a group of Buddhist philosophers. The outstanding among them was nagarjuna. It was he who conceived the doctrine of the void (Shunyata) meaning that every thing which is around us is emptiness and whatever we perceive is mere illusion. This void is in fact the nirvana or end to the cycle of birth and rebirth which every Buddhist secks.
new feature of the Manayana Buddhism is the concept of the future Buddha. The Buddha himself probably taught that he was the last of the long succession of earlier Buddhas. The carvings on the stupas of Barhut and Sanchi depict crowds of worshippers before the symbols of the Buddha. A little later sculptors began to carve images of the Buddha. A little later sculptors began to carve images of the Buddha himself. Soon the Buddhist sects took to worshipping images. Under the new (foreign) rulers of north-western India. Zoroastrianism and Buddhism came in contact and probably through this the idea of future Buddha became part of the orthodox Buddhists. Thus the cult of Maitreya or the future Buddha was widespread among al Buddhist sects by the time Menander came to Patliputra.
Romila Thapar holds the view that this aspect of Maitreya Buddha had its origin out side India. The Maitreya Buddha saves the world. This idea is further linked to the concept of the suffering saviour of the Bodhisattva who redeems humanity through his own suffering. In these twin concepts we clearly see the beliefs that were current in Palestine of the day. These belief reappear in later day Christianity as Jesus Christ the son of God, who was born to redeem the suffering of man and the future promise of second coming.
The concept of the Maitreya Buddha came to be linked with the older conception of Buddhism, the previous incarnations of Buddha known as Bodhisattavas. The Bodhisattava concept reached its consummation with the final birth of Gautama in the Sakyas. However as Maitreya and other unnamed Buddhas after him are yet to come there must be Bodhisattavas existing in the universe. These Bodhisattavas might be adored and prayed with out any misgiving. Thus the Bodhisattava doctrine believed in theheavens filled with mighty forces of goodness and presented Buddhism with a new my theology. It was this development that constituted the hall mark of Mahayana the Great vehicle.
The universe of the Great vehicle contains numerous Bodhisattava. The chief of them from the earthly point of view is avalokitesvara padmapani. His special attribute is compassion. Vajrapani a sterner Bodhisattava is the for of sin and evil. The great Maitreya the future Buddha is worshipped as Bodhisattava. Every thing from the humblest worm onwards is in a sense a Bodhisattava since all beings will attain nirvana and become the Buddha.
The great Vehicle was not content with creating this pantheon of noble and beneficent Bodhisattavas. It was claimed that Gautam Buddha was not a mere man but the earthly expression of a mighty spiritual being. The Buddha's Body of bliss is the presiding deity on the most important Mahayana heaven Sukhavati where the are reborn in the buds of lotuses which rise from a lively lake before the Buddha's throne. This divine Buddha is usually called Amitabha or Amitayus. He too shares the compassion of the Bodhisattava.
The Mahayana sect produced soon new versions of the Pitakas of scriptural texts of Buddhism they are all writings in Samskrit which became the official language of Mahayana. Many of these texts are ostensibly sermons of the Buddha.
The new Buddhist philosophical school of Mahayana came into existence during the 200 B.C. 300 A.D. period. Asvaghosha's name is associated with the school. Some of his famous works contain the philosophy of Mahayana. The book called Sraddhotpada-Sastra is attributed to him.
Mahayana doctrine has two philosophical schools Madhamika and Yogachara. For quite some time Buddhism began to slowly develop into a theistic religion with the Buddha as the object of the cult. Exponents of the Madhyamika were Nagarjuna and his disciple Aryadeva. It was with Nagarjuna that Mahayana developed its own system of philosophy. Later aryadeva write a commentary on the work. It appears from evidence that the Satavahanas were great patrons of Buddhism.
The philosophy of Madhyamika is commonly characterized as Sunyavada-the philosophy of relativism. According to this the phenomenal world is a mere illusion from the view-point of ultimate truth.
The second school called Yogachara is of later origin two brothers Asanga and Vasubandhu are generally believed to have been the first exponents of this system. This school also formulates two kinds of Truths-the Ultimate and the Relative and looks upon phenomenal world as an illustion. It asserts however that this illusion is mental illusion and therefore considers consciousness as real.
There is nothing strange about the emergence of Mahayana. The earlier form of Buddhism was rather arid unlike the Mahayana. The Mahayana requires us to take part in the world and evolve new social and religious ideals. The Mahayana happens to be more emotional and filling than Hinayana which reduces Nirvana and ethical life to great aridity.
The Mahayana Buddhism is theistic similar to the theistic beliefs of Shaivism and Vaishnavism preaching loving devotion to personal God whom the devotee loves with all his heart and easy spontaneous grace. On the metaphysical side it led to a school of thought similar to the conception of an absolute with regard to which all determination would prove to be negation. Reason and language only applied to finite and nothing can be said of the infinite.


CHALUKYAS OF BADAMI OR EARLY/WESTERN
"Telephone Director" is the epithet used by a Chinese scholar to summarise the nature of the history of India. To any syperficial observer this striking epithet betrays weaknesses of India historical material, and in particular the meager date relating to dynasties like the western Chalykyas. But truly speaking the variegated nature of Indian history is more occasioned by the vastness of the country than anyting else. Besides, the essential harmony and the subtlecontinuity of Indian history are overlooked because of non-appreciation of its underlying currents.
The origin of Chalukyas (early/western/Badami/Vatapi) is controversial. Bilhana, the author of Vikramanka-deyagharita, the court poet of Vikramaditya VI, and the later Chalukya inscriptions, lay claim to Ayodhya as their ancestral home. Some regard them as related to the Gurjaras. What ever might be their origin, by the mid 6th century A.D., pulakesin I carved out a small area around Vatapi or Badami. He performed an asvamedha ceremony. His successor was kirtivarman who conquered both konkan and north Kerala. Many other conquests are attributed to him but the claim cannot be substantiated. His successor was Mangalesa who conquered the Kadambas and the Gangas. He was killed and succeeded by his nephew, Pulakesin. The Aihole inscription of Pulakesin Ii deals with the history of this dynasty.
The Chalukya power reached its zenith under Pulakesin II (609 to 642 A.D.). To begin with, he subjugated his rebellious feudatories and neighbours. He Captured the capital of the Kadambas; overawed the Ganges of Mysore; and subdued the Mauravas of North Konkan. The latas of Gujarat, the Malavas, and the Gurjars also submitted to him. King harsha ws defeated by him. Another victim was the Pallava king, Mahendra varman. The Cholas, the Keralas and the Pandyas submitted to him. He occupied Pistapura and installed his Brother, Kubja-Vishnuvardhana, as his representative. But in 642 A.D. the Pallava king, Narasimha Varman, stormed Vatapi and probably killed pulakesin II, this ws followed by a periof of confusion from 642 to 655 A.
Pulkesin II maintained friendly relations with Khusru II, the king of Persia. The reception given to the Persian Mission is depicted in one of the Ajanta cave paintings. Hieun-Tsand visited his kingdom. He describe it as rich and fertile. "The inhabitants were proud-spirited and war-like, grateful for favour and revengeful for wrongs, self-sacrificing towards suppliants in distress and sanguinary to death with any who trated them insultingly." About Pulkesin II, the traveler observes, "His plans and undertakings are widespread and his munificient actions are felf over a great distance.
After his death, the Chalukya dynasty was in an eclipse, His son Vikramadiya I (655 to 680 A.D.) plundered the Pallava capital, Kanchi. Vikramaditya's successors, Vinayaditya and Vijayditya, were powerful rulers. During the reign of Vikramaditya II the Pallavas were once more defeated. Probably, he drove back the Arab intrusion into southern Gujarat. His son, Kirti, Varman II, was defeated by the Rashtrakuta ruller, Dantidurga, in 753 A.D. and with him the history of the dynasty to an end.
Regarding their achievements, the first was their maritime power. It is said that Pulkasin, with a hundred ships, attacked and captured the capital ofa bostile state. The central government of Chalukyas exercised a paternalistic control over village administration. This is unlike the administrative practices of south India. The Chalukyas recieveda limited income from land. Added to this, the earnings from tradewere not considerable. Muc of what the State earned was spent on army. The standing army was supplemented and cavalry. Often, army officers were sued in civil administration. Whenver an emergency arose.
Regarding religion, the Chalukya kings were Hindu brahmins but they respected other faiths too. The Chinese traveler noticed more than one hunred Buddhist monasteries. Buddhism was on the decline although Hieun-Tsang opined that it was popular. Jainsim enjoyed royal patronage. Buddism gradually gave way to Jainism and Brahminis. Sacrifices were given great importance and many treaties were written on them. The king himself performed a number of sacrifices including Asvamedha and Vajpeya. Despite this stress on the orthodox form of Hindu religion, the Puranic version grew popular. It was this popularity that gave momentum to the bulding of temples in honour of Vishnu. Shiva and other gods.
Regarding architechture, the Chalukyas perfected the art of stone-building stone finally joined without maortar. Under the auspices of the Chalukyas, the Buddhists and the brahmins built cave temples. The cave frescoes began earlier but thefinest speciments of them belonged to the Chalukyaa are of the 5th and 6th centuries. The murals depict both religious and secular themes. In the first monastic hall of the Ajanta one mural depict the reception given toa Persian embassy by Pulakesin II. The temples of Chalukyas belong to the Deccan style. His tradition began earlier in the rock-cut temples of Elephanta. The aihole and Badami temples of the Chalukyas represent the Deccani style. This style reached its culmination in the Kailash temple of Ellora a Rashtrakuta achievement.
The cave temples of the Chalukyas were the counter-parts of Buddhists save temples as borne out bytheVishnu temple at Badami. Apart from this feature, the Chalukyan temples were stone-built-stone finely joined without morat like the temple of Shiva at Meguti. This temple has a prasasti on Pulakesin composed by Ravikriti. Out of all their temples, the best reserved is the Vishnu temple at Aihole. It bears an inscription of Vikramaditya II and is built on the lines of the Buddhists Cahitya-hall. One more temple is the favous Virupakasha temple at Pattadakal. This temple has a pillared mandapam or meeting place for people. The roof is supported by sixteen monolithic pillars with sculptured bracket capitals.
The Chalukyas erected a large number of temples at Aihole. This particular style was follwed in the close by towns and Badami and Pattadakal. Aihole had 70 temples, whereas, Pattadakal had 10 temples. In the latter are found the famous temples of Papanatha and Virupakasha. The walls of the temples are adorned with beautiful sculptures representing scenes of Ramayana.
After the eight century land grantswere made to these temples, a common feature of temple maintenance in South India. The evidence relating to this aspect is recorded on the walls of the temples. Also the Jaina followers erected some temples in Karnataka during the dyas of the Chalukays.
The Chalukya temples were an evolution of the gupta shirne. However, at the apex of their glory, the Chalukyan temples bear evidence to both the northern and Dravidian styles of architechture. The examples of this development are the rock-cut temples in Elephanta. The Kalidashnatha temple built during the days of Rashtrakutas is an example of transition from rock-cut to the free-standing style.
Sanksrit was thelanguage of the day. Vernaculars also came to be developed. An inscription of the seventh century mentions Kannada as the local language, and Sanskrit the language of the elite.
Thus, even though the delineation of the political history of the Chalukays is quite dull, their importance consists in their having continued the traditions of India. Thus, even though the history of India appears to be a Jig-saw puzzle, there is a pattern underlying it.

Model Questions

1.Match List I ( Wars ) with List II ( Governor Generals) and select the correct answer using the code given below the lists ;
LIST-I LIST-II
(Wars) (Governor Generals)
A. The first Mysore war 1 Lord Cornwalis
B. The second Mysore war 2 Lord Hasting
C. The Third Mysore war 3 Lord Wellesley
D. The fourth Mysore war 4 Lord Waren hastings
5.Lord Smith

Codes:-
A B C D
a) 5 4 1 3
b) 1 2 3 4
c) 5 4 3 2
d) 4 3 2 1
2) The original cannon of the Jain’s is believed to have consisted of

a) 6 Angas b) 8 Angas c) 12 Purvas d) 14 Purvas
3) The Jaina system of thought closely resembles

a) Vedenta b) Samkhya c) Yogachara d) Rigveda
4) Aranyayi, Goddess of the Forest is first mentioned in the

a) Rig Veda b) Atharvaveda c) Aranayakas d) Upanishadas
5) Adaryu mentioned in the Vedas is

a) Vedic Rajan b) Vedic Queen c) A Type of Chariot d) A Category Sacrifices Priest
6) Match List I (Goods ) with List II ( Places) and select the correct answer using the code given below the lists ;
List I List II
(Goods) (Places)
A. Copper 1. Deccan
B. Shell 2. Rajasthan
C. Lapis Lazuli 3. Kutch
D. Gold 4. Afganisthan

Codes:-
A B C D
a) 3 4 1 2
b) 1 3 2 4
c) 2 3 1 4
d) 2 3 4 1
7) Match List I ( Tribal Revolts ) with List II ( Years) and select the correct answer using the code given below the lists ;
List I List II
(Tribal Revolts) (Years)
A. Khods 1.1913
B. Santhals 2.1846-1848
C. Bhils 3.1855-1856
D. Mundas 4.1899
Codes:-
A B C D
a) 3 1 2 4
b) 2 3 1 4
c) 2 1 4 3
d) 1 4 2 3
8) Which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched?

a) C.R.Reddi - Praja Mithra Madali
b) Jotiba Phule - Satya Shodak Samaj
c) B.R.Ambedkar - All India Depressed Classes Mission
d) Rajaram Mohan Roy – Prathana Samaj
9) The system of competitive examination for civil service was accepted in principle in the year

a) 1833 b) 1853 c) 1858 d) 1882
10) Monopoly of the East India Company to trade with china was abolished by the Charter Act of

a)1793 b) 1813 c) 1833 d) 1853
11) Which one of the following Act created the post of Lt.Governor of Bengal

a) 1773 Act b) 1784 Act c) 1858 Act d) 1853 Act
12) The main feature of 1919 Act was

a) Diarchy b) Federation c) Communal Representation d) Provincial autonomy
13) The Philosophy of Upanishad emphasis on

a) Bakti b) Gyan c) Karma d) Tapas
14) Match List I (Journals ) with List II ( Founders) and select the correct answer using the code given below the lists ;
List I List II
(Journals) (Founders)
A. TatwaBodhini Sabha 1. Rajarammohan Roy
B Bharat Bhrama Samaj 2. G.K..Gohale
C. Bhrama Sabha 3. K.C.Sen
D. Servants of Indian society 4. D.N.Tagore

Codes:-
A B C D
a) 4 3 2 1
b) 4 3 2 1
c) 4 3 2 3
d) 1 2 3 4
15) Which of the following is not correct regarding Gupta and Post Gupta Age

a) First capital of Harsha was Thaneswar then Second capital was Kannauj
b) Chandra Gupta II’s reign , Ujjain was the Second capital
c) The Pallavas shifted the capital to Tanjore, due to threat of Pulukesin II
d) Huen - Tsang visited Harsha-Pulkesin II - Narshima Pallava I - court
16) Ayodhya is on the River bank of

a) Chambel b) Ganga c) Yamuna d) Sarayu
17) “Raja Vyavahar Kosh’ was complied during Sivaji’s reign, the book deals with

a) Chronicles of Maratha dynasty b) Polity c) Treasury d) Lexicography
18) When was the Calcutta Hindu College started?

a) 1815 b) 1829 c) 1830 d) 1817
19) When were Bethune schools for girls started?

a) 1845 b) 1849 c) 1850 d) 1833
20) “Suniyavada” philosophy was expounded by

a) Nagarjuna b) Nagasena c) Asvagosha d) Ananda
21) Which one of the following is not true of prehistoric of India?

a) Rock paintings belonged to Upper Paleolithic age
b) Chopani-mando provides the evidence of pottery
c) Manufacturing of pottery was developed in Mesolithic age
d) Mehragarh provides the earliest evidence of cotton
22) Match List I (Sites) with List II (Periods) and select the correct answer using the code given below the lists;
LIST I LIST II
(Sites) (Periods)
A. Adamgarh 1. Upper Paleolithic
B. Adirambakkam 2. Neolithic
C. Burzaham 3. Mesolithic
D. Bimbetaka 4. Lower Paleolithic

Codes:-
A B C D
a) 3 4 1 2
b) 2 4 1 2
c) 4 2 3 1
d) 3 4 2 1
23) How many seasons were mentioned in Rig Veda

a) 4 b) 5 c) 3 d) 1
24) According to the Buddhist tradition, the order of Varna system was

a) Brahmans, Kshatriyas,Vyshaiyas, Sudras
b) Kshatriyas, Brahamans, Vyshiayas,Sudras
c) Vaishiayas, Brahamans, Ksatriayas, Sudras
d) Sudras, Vyshaiyas, Kshatriyas, Brahamans
25) Who founded young Bengal movement

a) C.R.Das b) D.N.Tagore c) H.V.Derozio d) David Hare
Directions : The following seven items consist of two statements, one labeled as the ‘Assertion (A) and the other as Reason (R) ‘. You are to examine these two statements carefully and select the answers to these items using the codes given below :
Codes:
a) Both A and R is true. R is correct explanation of A
b) A and R is individually correct. But R is not correct explanation for A.
c) A is true but R is false
d) A is false but R is true

26) Assertion (A) : The main problem of Nawab of Bengal equal treatment of European
and Indian in trade concerned are

Reason ( R ) : East India Company’s servants misused trade pass

27) Assertion (A) : Firoz Tughlaq followed vigorous policies against Non Muslims
subject

Reason ( R ) : He imposed Jiziya tax on Non-Muslim in first time

28) Assertion (A) : Akbar founded new religion “Din-i-illahi” in 1580 A.D

Reason ( R ) : He was influenced by the philosophy of Monotheism

29) Assertion (A) : Battle of Plassey laid the foundation for British rule in Bengal

Reason ( R ) : The British received Diwani rights over Bengal after Plassey

30) Assertion (A) : Partition of India was accepted by Gandhiji in 1947

Reason ( R ) : He felt that it was only way to avoid communal riots

31) Assertion(A) : Vedic literature is the only major source to construct history of
Vedic culture

Reason ( R ) : There was no material source for that

32) Assertion(A) : The English introduced western education in India

Reason ( R ) : They wanted to make Indians aware of scientific and rational
advancement

33) Dual system was abolished by

a) Lord Warren Hasting b) Lord Wellesley c) Lord Robert Clive
d) Lord William Ben tick
34) Who founded “Veda Samaj”?

a) Doriaswamy Iyengar b)Sree Ramulu c) D.N.. Tagore d) a and b
35) who was the first English ambassador to Mughal court?

a) Hawkins b) Sir Thomas Rae c) William Norris d) Hudson
36) The first viceroy of India was

a) Lord canning b) Lord Dalhousie c) Lord William Bentick d) Lord Mountbatten
37) Lord Clive defeated Siraj-ud-duallah in the battle of

a) Battle of Plassey b) Battle of Panipat III c) Battle of Buxar d) Battle of Wandiwash
38) ‘Dipavasma’ was written in

a) Pratrit b) Pali c) Tamil d) Sanskrit
39) Who attended all the three round table conferences in London?

a) Gandhi b) Sarojini Naidu c) Jinnah d) Ambedkar
40) Under which of the following sets of ruler were organized the first three Buddhist councils

a) Bimbisara, Ashoka, Dasratha
b) Prasanajit, Bimbisara, Ajathasatru
c) Ajathatsatru, Kalakosa, Ashoka
d) Ajathatsatru, Kalakosa, Kanishka
41) Who was against the abolition of Sati

a) Rajaram Mohan Roy b) Tilak c) Gohale d) Radha Kant Deb
42) When did the east India Company established?

a) 1600 b) 1602 c) 1608 d) 1610
43) Which of the following was absent in Rig Vedic period?

a) Child marriage
b) Varna system based on occupation
c) Widow remarriage
c) Polygamy
44) “Vyakarana” is

a) Grammar b) Astronomy c) Ritual d) Jyothita

45) Who was the first to start caste movement in Maharashtra?

a) Jyothiba Phule b) B.R,Ambedkar c) Tilak d) Atmaram Pandurang
46) Which of the following was not responsible for the spread of Buddhism?

a) Language of the people was used
b) No caste barrier
c) No sacrifice
d) Too much stress on morality
47) Rivers familiar to Rig Vedic people are
!) Ganga 2) Yamuna 3) Saraswati 4) Sindhu

a) 1 & 2 b) 3&4 c) 2,3&4 d) 1,2,3 & 4
48) Give the correct order

a) Rishaba, Parsava, Mahavira, Bhadrabahu
b) Rishaba, Mahavira, Parsava, Bhadrababu
c) Rishaba, Parsava, Bhadrababu, Mahavira
d) Mahavira, Parasava, Rishaba and Badrabahu
49) Which of the following was added by Mahavira

a) Non -injury b) Non-possession c) Non-stealing d) continuance
50) Who presided over the Calcutta session of congress, when AITUC was founded?

a) Vijayaragavachari b) Lalalajpat Rai c) N.M..Joshi d) Gandhiji
51) Who started Doctrine of Lapse?

a) Warren Hasting b) Curzon c) Wellesley d) Dalhousie
52) Who among the following was not a leader of Revolt of 1857?

a) Nana sahib b) Rani Lakshmi Bai c) Kunwar singh d) Man singh
53) Awadh was annexed in 1856 who was the Nawab of Awadh at the time?

a) Begum of Awadh b) Maulvi Ahamaduallah c) Wajid Ali Shah d) Birjis Cadir
54) Who propounded the theory of “ Drain of Wealth”?

a) Dada Bai Naoroji b) Gandhi c) Nehru d) Tilak
55) Theosophical society was founded by

a) Madam H.P. Blavasky and Col H.S. Olcott
b) Madam cama
c) Annie Besant
d) Margret Nobel
56) Which freedom fighter did not accept “Drain theory”?

a) M.G.Ranade b) R.C.Dutt c).G.K.Gohale d) R.P.Dutt
57) Primary worship of Indus valley people was

a) Mother Goddess b) Pasupati Mahadeva c) Natural Worship d) Animal Worship
58) The battle of ten kings was fought on the bank of

a) River Parushni b) River Ganga c) River Saraswati d) River Yamuna
59) The oldest Sanskrit Grammar book is

a) Nirukta b) Astadhyayi c) Kalpa d) Silpasutra
60) Boghaz koi inscription refers to

a) Indra, Varuna,
b) Indra, Varuna, Mitra
c) Indra, Agni, Varuna
d) Indra,Varuna, Mitra,Nasatyas
61) The first fort the British constructed in India was the fort of

a) St.George b) St.William c) St.David d) St.Santhome
62) In 1856, which act, was passed by the British after prolonged efforts were made by Pandit Iswar Chandra Vidiyasagar

a) Abolition of sati b) Abolition Of Pardah System c) Promotion of Vedic education
e) Widow Re-marriage
63) Rule of East India Company in India ended in

a) 1833 b) 1813 c) 1853d) 1857
64). Who was the Governor General for the Introduction of Permanent Settlement in Bengal?

a) Lord corn Wallis b) Lord Bentinck c) Lord Wellesey d) Lord Canning
65) “ The aim of English Education in India was produced a class of persons who would be Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, opinions morals and intellect”, who said this

a) Charles Trevelyan b) Lord Macaulay c) Lord William Bentinck d) Lord Canning
66) The Battle of Buxar was fought between

a) Mir qasim and The English
b) Mir qasim, Nawab Of Oudh and The Mughal Emperor ShahAlamII one party against the English
c) Mir Jafar and The English
d) Mir Quasim and The Dutch
67) Which European community established first trade link with India

a) Portuguese b) Dutch c) French d) British
68) Alauddin Khalji, Sikander Lodi, Shershah Suri and Akbar - they were well known in Medieval History of India for their contribution in the field of
1) Secular policy on state affairs
2) Land revenue system
3) Market reforms system
4) Military reforms system

select the correct code
a) 2 alone
b) 2 & 3
c) 1,2 &4
d) 2,3 &4
69)It is stated that one of the four veda contains a collection of sacrifices formulas what is the name of that veda

a) Rigveda b) Atharva Veda c) Sama Veda d) Yajur veda
70) who was / were the Guru’s of Buddha

a) Rudraka Ramputra
b) Arala Kalama
c) Raghula
d) a&b
71) It is stated that all the Monks(Bhikkhus) living in a monastery were expected to attend an assembly held

a) Every day
b) Every week
c) Every fortnight
d) Every month

72) Gautama Buddha developed the idea of renunciation by seeing person in different stages which one of the following stages was not included among them

a) An Old Man
b) A Grahastha
c) A Patient
d) An Ascetic
73) The fateful Battle of Plassey was fought on the

a) 23rd April 1757
b) 19th May 1757
c) 13th June 1757
d) 23rd June 1757
74) The recapture of Delhi by the East India Company broke the mutineers when did it take place?

a) 5th June 1857
b) 20th Sep 1857
c) 2nd Aug 1858
d) 17th June 1858
75)Who founded the Gurukulkangri at Haridwar

a) Dayanand
b) Lajpat Rai
c) Shradhanandha
d) Lal Hanjraj
76) Match List-I with List-II
List-I List-II
(Books) (Authors)
A) Nibandha Mala 1) Dayanand Saraswati
B) Pecepts Of The Jesus 2) Raja Ram Mohan Roy
C) Gita Rahasya 3)Tilak
D) Satyartha Prakash 4) Vishnu Krishna Chiplukar

Codes:
A B C D
a) 4 2 3 1
b) 4 2 1 3
c) 4 1 3 2
d) 3 1 4 2
77) Match List I With List II
List-I List-II
(Associations) (Founders)
A) Satya Mahima Dharma 1)Tulsi Ram
B) Social Service League 2) N.M.Joshi.
C) Dharma Sabha 3)Radha Kant Deb
D) Radha Swami Movement 4) Mukund Das


Codes:
A B C D
a) 4 2 1 3
b) 1 4 3 2
c) 4 2 3 1
d) 2 1 3 4
78) The basic aim of Akali Movement in Punjab was

a) Protest against Hindhu rivalism
b) To spread modern education to the Sikhs
c) To liberate the Sikh Gurudawaars from the control of Mahantas
d) None of the above
79) Match List-I with List-II
List-I List-II
(Acts) (Governor Generals)
A) Age of consent bill 1) Landsdowne
B) Abolition Of Sati 2) North Brooke
C) Widow Remarriage Act 3) Dalhousie
D) Native Marriage Act 4) William Bentick

Codes:
A B C D
a) 1 4 2 3
b) 1 4 3 2
c) 2 4 3 1
d) 2 4 1 3
80) Founder of Swami Narain Sect was

a) Tulsidas
b) Jambekar
c) Sahajanand
d) Dayanand
81) Match List-I with List-II
List-I List-II
(Associations) (Founders)
A) Sangat Sabha 1) Dr.Ambedkar
B) Vedanta College 2) K.C.Sen
C) Vedanta Societies 3) Vivekanda
D) Bahishkrit Hitkarni Sabha 4) Raja Ram Mohan Roy

Codes:
A B C D
a) 4 2 3 1
b) 2 3 4 1
c) 2 4 3 1
d) 4 3 2 1
82) Chola Empire was known for their art and their architecture . among the four statements which one is not correct?

a) Lord Natraraja Statue is one of the magnificient work of the Cholas
b) “Oothuvars” were appointed in temples to enchant “Thevaram”
c) Dravida Style of architecture was originated during Chola period
d) 12th Tirumalai “Periapuranam” was compiled during Chola period
83) Battle of Takkolam was between

a) Rajaraja-I and Western Chalukyas
b) Rajendra-I and Western Chalukyas
c) Parantakai-I and Rashtrakutas
d) Aditya Chola and Pallavas
84) Which one of the state was not an ally of Bahmini Kingdom in the Battle of Talaikotta?

a) Bedar
b) Berar
c) Ahmednagar
d) Bijapur
85) Match list-I with list-II
List-I List-II
(Literary Works) (Authors)
A) Vinaya Patrika 1) Miruturya
B) Gauda Vaho 2) Sandhiya Karanandi
C) Rama Charita 3) Thulsidas
D) Prabandha sidhanata 4) Vakpati

Codes:
A B C D
a) 4 3 1 2
b) 3 4 2 1
c) 4 3 2 1
d) 3 4 1 2
86) Malik Muhammad Jayasi, a court poet of Shershah Suri wrote Padmavati,. It deals with Alauddin Khalji’s love affair with Rani Padmini of Chittor. The literary work is in

a) Arabic
b) Persian
c) Urdu
d) Hindi
87) “Mahabasya” was written by Patanjali. He was the contemporary of

a) Chandra Gupta II
b) Ashoka
c) Pushyamitra Sunga
d) Vasudeva Kanva

88) Indo-Greeks, who ruled India in Post Maurayan period. They were well known for

a) Patronizing Buddhism
b) Issuing Gold Coins
c) Developing Music
d) Patronizing Bhagavatism
89) who was the founder of “Bharat Pur” city?

a) Gokla
b) Rajaram
c) Badan Singh
d) Surajmal
90) In which Nizam period Hyderabad was annexed with Union Of India

a) Nizam Ali
b) Wazir Ali
c) Osman Ali Khan
d) Salabat Jang
91) Rajendra Chola-I had war with Sailendra Dynasty , what was the primary motive for that?

a) To capture spice island
b) To influence over Bay Of Bengal
c) To display theirs navy power
d) To monopolise trade over china
92) Amerikkan Modal- Arabiyan Katalil ( throw the American model in to the Arabian sea) slogan was raised by the communist in the event of

a) Moplah Rebellion In 1921
b) Telengana Movement In 1946
c) August Offer In 1940
d) Punnapar-Vayalar Movement In 1946
93) Bijolia Peasant Movement took place in

a) Gujurat
b) Rajasthan
c) Central Province
d) Telengana
94) Who started Ahmedabad Textile labour association?

a) Gandhi
b) Lala lajpatrai
c) Tilak
d) Nehru
95) In which session of congress adopted “ Go Back to Simon” resolution?

a) Calcutta 1928
b) Madras 1927
c) Lahore 1929
d) Karachi 1931
96) Match List-I with List-II
List-I List-II
(Secret Societies) (Founders)
A) Abinav Bharat 1) Bhagat Singh
B) Decca Anusleen Samriti 2) Vanji Iyer
C) Bharat Matha Association 3) V.D.Savarkar
D) Navjevan Sabha 4) Pulin Das

Codes:
A B C D
a) 4 3 2 1
b) 3 4 1 2
c) 4 3 1 2
d) 3 4 2 1
97) Which pair is not correct?

a) Jinnah - Home Rule Movement
b) Gandhi - Khada Satyagraha
c) Tilak - Non Cooperation Movement
d) Motilal Nehru - Swaraj Party
98) Match List-I with List-II
List-I List-II
(Nationalist) (Journalist)
A) Thiru Vi Ka 1) Kudi Arasu
B) S.A.Dange 2) Common Wheel
C) Annie Besant 3) Nav India
D) E.V.Ramaswamy Naicker 4) Indian Express

Codes:
A B C D
a) 3 4 1 2
b) 4 1 2 3
c) 3 4 2 1
d) 4 2 3 1
99) Who was the leader of “Ulgulan Movement”?

a) Ramsingh
b) Velu Thambi
c) Birsa Munda
d) Kitur Rayappa
100) Which pair is correct?

a) Fragment of Woven Cloth - Amri
b) Evidence of Lipstick - Harappa
c) Evidence of Chess Board - Lothal
d) Fire Altars- Chanhudara
101) Which one is the largest in Mohanjodara

a) Great Bath
b) Granary
c) Assembly Hall
d) Pasupati Mahadeva Statue
102) Match List-I with List-II
List-I List-II
(Adhayakshas) (Department)
A) Akara 1) Comerece
B) Sutra 2) Accounts
C) Aksha Patala 3) Textiles
D) Panya 4) Mines

Codes:
A B C D
a) 4 3 2 1
b) 2 3 1 4
c) 4 3 1 2
d) 2 3 1 4
103) Which Rashtrakuta rulers associated with Jainism?
1) Krishna I
2) Govinda III
3) Amoghavarsha I
4) Krishna II

choose the correct code:
a) 2,3
b) 3 only
c) 3& 4
d) 1& 3
104) During (800 AD –1200AD) four major kingdom ruled India, they were known for better military system. Read the statement about them
1) Rashtrakuta maintained forts in good conditions
2) Pratiharas had good cavalry
3) Good quality of elephants were used in warfare by the Palas
4) Cholas had strong navy power

Choose the Correct Code
a) 2,3 & 4
b) 1 & 4
c) 4 only
d) 1,2,3 & 4
105) The first translator of Vyasa’s Mahabharata into Tamil was

a) Perun Devanar
b) Villiputhur Alvar
c) Kamban
d) Jayandontar
106) Which of the following statements are correct about Sangam Age of Tamil?


1) Kings had matrimonial relationship with Vellalas
2) Brahmanas were Non-Vegetarians
3) Chief revenue of the state was Trade and Commerce
4) The status of women was undermined

select the correct answer using the code given below
a) 1 alone
b) 1,3
c) 1,2,3
d) 1,2,4
107) what is the correct chronological sequence of the Governor Generals of British India
1) Lord Curzon
2) Lord Lansdowne
3) Lord Chemlsford
4)Lord Minto-II

select the correct answer using the code below
a) 2-1-3-4
b) 2-1-4-3
c) 1-2-3-4
d) 1-2-4-3
108) Who was the Chief Architect of 2nd Five Year Plans?

a) Harod-Domar
b) Mahalanobis
c) John Mathai
d) Gadgil
109) What is the correct chronological order
1) Federal Bank was renamed as Reserve Bank of India
2) First Five Year Plan was drafted
3) Imperial Bank was renamed as State Bank of India
4)Economic Resolution of Karachi Session of Congress

select the answer from the code given below
a) 1-2-3-4
b) 2-1-3-4
c) 4-1-2-3
d) 4-1-3-2
110) Which Sikh Guru popularized Gurumukhi scripts

a) Guru Nanak
b) Guru Ramdas
c) Guru Angad
d) Guru Tej Bahadur
111) Dahsala system of land revenue was introduced by Akbar?

a) 1580
b) 1575
c) 1590
d) 1602
112) According to Barani, how many provinces were during Alauddin khaljis’ reign?

a) 10
b) 12
c) 15
d) 20
113) Match List-I with List-II
List-I List-II
(Departments) (Sultans)
A) Diwan-i - kohi 1) Firoz Tughlaq
B) Diwan-i - mushtakharaj 2) Balban
C) Diwan-i - arz 3) Alauddin Khalji
D) Diwan-i - kairat 4) Mohamad Tughlaq

Codes:
A B C D
a) 3 4 1 2
b) 4 3 2 1
c) 4 3 1 2
d) 3 4 2 1
114) Which Mughal Emperor introduced du-aspa-sih-aspa method in Mansabdari system?

a) Akbar
b) Shahjahan
c) Aurangzeb
d) Jahangir
115) Which pair is not correct

a) Revolt of Salim-1605 AD
b) Revolt of Khusurav-1606 AD
c) Death of Abul Faizi-1595 AD
d) Death of Birbal-1580 AD
116) Which Bundela Chief murdered Abul Fazl in 1602 AD?

a) Jujhar Singh
b) Gokla
c) Badan Singh
d) Bir Singh
117) which is considered true ach in early Delhi Sultanate period?

a) Ali Darwaz
b) Iltumish Tomb
c) Balban’s Tomb
d) Qudub Minar
118) Give the correct order

a) Belgum Session of Congress - foundation of Swaraj Party - Chauri Churra Incidence - Nehru Report
b) Nehru Report - Chauri Churra Incident - Belgum Session of Congress - Foundation of Swaraj Party
c) Foundation of Swaraj Party - Belgum Session - Chauri Churra Incidence - Nehru Report
d) Chauri Churra Incidence - Foundation of Swaraj Party - Belgum Session of Congress - Nehru Report
119) In modern Indian history, Lucknow Pact 1916 is significance. which one of the
following statement is not correct regarding Lucknow Pact?

a) Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Annie Besant, Tilak were back bone of the pact
b) First Time Congress accepted communal representation for Muslims
c) Later Tilak critised the pact because of accepting communal representation
d) Congress and Muslim league agreed to stand on common platform to fight against British Imperialism
120) Last Ruler of Mauriya Dynasty was murdered by Pushya Mitra Sunga, which one is not
acceptable reason for the incident according to Historical evidence?

a) Anti Dhamma policy of the King
b) Anti Brahmin policy of the King
c) Fear of Foreign Invasion
d) Anti-People policy


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Answers:

1) a 2) d 3) b 4) a 5) d 6) d 7) b 8) d 9) b 10) c 11) d 12) a 13) c 14) b 15) c 16) d 17) d 18) d 19) b 20) a 21) c 22) d 23) b 24) b 25) c 26) a 27) c 28) d 29) c 30) a 31) a 32) c 33) a 34) b 35) a 36) a 37) a 38) b 39) d 40) c 41) d 42) a 43) a 44) a 45) a 46) d 47) d 48) a 49) d 50) b 51) d 52) d 53) c 54) a 55) a 56) c 57) a 58) a 59) b 60)d 61) a 62) c 63) d 64) a 65) b 66) b 67) a 68) a 69) d 70) d 71) c 72) b 73) d 74) b 75) c 76) a 77) c 78) c 79) b 80) c 81) c 82) c 83) c 84) b 85) b 86) d 87) c 88) b 89) c 90) c 91) d 92) d 93) b 94) a 95) b 96) d 97) c 98) c 99) c 100) c 101) b 102) a 103) c 104) d 105) a 106) d 107) b 108) b 109)c 110)c 111) a 112) b 113) b 114) d 115) d 116) d 117) c 118) d 119) c 120) a